Understanding Diagnostic Reports

The CTOPP-2 checks how a child processes the sounds in words. It's one of the most useful tests for understanding reading difficulties, and it comes up often in dyslexia assessments, because trouble with sound processing is often an underlying challenge when there is reading and spelling difficulty.

What it measures

Three main areas:

Phonological awareness - whether a child can hear and work with the individual sounds in words. This includes breaking words into sounds (hearing that 'cat' is made of /c/ /a/ /t/) and blending sounds together into a word.

Phonological memory - whether a child can hold on to sounds or made-up words for a short time. This matters for learning new words and for spelling.

Rapid naming - how quickly a child can name letters, numbers, colours or objects. This shows how easily they can pull sounds and words out of memory and say them quickly and accurately.

Why it's used

It picks out children who struggle with the sound-based skills that reading is built on, and it shows where the strengths and weaknesses lie so support can be aimed at the right place. It's also useful for checking whether an intervention - tutoring, a phonics programme - is working, and it gives schools clear evidence for EHCP applications.

What your child will be asked to do

The CTOPP-2 is made up of twelve short tasks (called subtests). Among them:

• Elision - say a word with a sound taken out ("say 'stop' without the /s/" → 'top')

• Blending words - listen to separate sounds and say the whole word (/d/ /o/ /g/ → 'dog')

• Phoneme isolation - pick out one sound in a word ("what's the first sound in 'sun'?")

• Sound matching - find which words begin or end with the same sound

• Blending nonwords - put made-up sounds together into a nonsense word (this tests phonics without letting memory do the work)

• Segmenting nonwords - break a made-up word into its separate sounds

• Memory for digits - repeat numbers back in the right order

• Nonword repetition - hear and repeat made-up words

• Rapid naming - say the names of digits, letters, colours or objects as fast as possible Together these build a picture of how a child is using spoken language to support their reading.

The TOD is a newer assessment - it was authorised by SASC in May 2024 - and it's designed specifically around dyslexia rather than being a general reading or attainment test adapted for the purpose. You may see it in more recent reports as assessors take it up. It works across a wide age range, from age 5 to adulthood.

How it's built

The TOD comes in three parts, and an assessor uses whichever fits:

• A Screener - shorter, can be given to a group or an individual

• TOD-Early - for children aged 5 to 9 who aren't yet reading connected text

• TOD-Comprehensive - the full battery, for ages 6 upwards What it measures It's organised into three areas: reading and spelling; linguistic processing (phonological awareness, orthographic processing, rapid naming and working memory - the sound, letter-pattern and memory skills underneath reading); and vocabulary and reasoning (thinking skills that don't depend on reading).

Comparing how a child does across these three areas is part of how a diagnosis is reached - many children with dyslexia score lower on reading and spelling than on vocabulary and reasoning. It also includes rating scales completed by the child, a parent and a teacher, which pick up things a test on the day can't - a family history of reading difficulty, or early struggles with speech and language.

What you'll get

Standard scores, percentile ranks, confidence intervals and age equivalents for each part, along with indexes designed to show the likelihood of dyslexia. One of its selling points for assessors is that it links its findings to specific intervention recommendations.

The HAST-2 is a spelling test used with anyone from age 5 to adult. It's particularly helpful for understanding spelling difficulties, spotting the patterns behind them, and tracking progress over time.

It's often used to support a child with spelling difficulties or dyslexia, to monitor progress after literacy support, to inform an IEP or EHCP, and to provide evidence for exam access arrangements.

What it involves

It's a single-word spelling test - the child is given words to spell one at a time. Each word is spoken aloud in a sentence for context, then repeated on its own, and the child writes it

down. The test starts at a level suited to the child's age or ability and the words gradually

get harder, covering a wide spread of spelling rules and patterns. It can be done one-to-one or with a group.

What it measures

It looks at a child's ability to hear a spoken word, process it using their knowledge of sounds and letters, recall the relevant spelling patterns, and put it down in writing. It produces standardised scores (comparing performance with other children the same age), spelling ages, and information about the kinds of errors a child is making.

Why it's useful

It's quick, it works across a wide age range, and it pinpoints specific spelling difficulties rather than just flagging that spelling is weak. It's especially valuable for a child being assessed for dyslexia, or one who needs evidence for support like extra time or a scribe. It's used by specialist teachers, educational psychologists, SENCos and classroom teachers trained in diagnostic testing.

The SDMT is a very quick test - under five minutes - that looks at how well someone can pay attention, take in information and work at speed. It's used with children from age 8 upwards and with adults.

What it involves

It's a symbol-matching task. The child is shown a key, where each symbol matches a number. They're then given a sequence of symbols and have to give the matching number for each one, working through as many as they can in 90 seconds. Answers can be written or spoken - spoken works well for a child who finds writing difficult.

What it measures

Processing speed, visual attention, working memory and how efficiently a child can work. These matter a great deal for learning - for reading, for problem-solving, and for keeping up with the pace of a classroom.

What it can show

For the children seen in a dyslexia or SpLD assessment, the SDMT is good at picking up slower processing speed and difficulties with attention - the kind of thing that means a child understands the work but can't get through it at the same rate as their classmates. It gives a score based on how many correct matches are made in the time, and compares that with what's typical for the child's age. It's used by educational and clinical psychologists, neuropsychologists, and SENCos as part of a wider assessment.

The TOMAL looks at how well a child can remember and use information over short periods. It covers both what they hear (auditory memory) and what they see or do (visual memory).

What the different parts test

Auditory memory - what your child hears

• Digits forwards - listen to numbers and repeat them in the same order

• Letters forwards - the same, with letters

These are about holding on to what was just heard and repeating it back, which matters for following instructions and learning sounds.

Visual memory - what your child sees and does

• Manual imitation - watch someone perform hand movements, then copy them in order

Working memory - holding and changing information in your mind

• Digits backwards - hear numbers and say them back in reverse order

• Letters backwards - the same, with letters

The backwards tasks are harder, because the child has to hold the information and rearrange it at the same time - a skill that underpins reading, spelling, maths and problem-solving.

The Attention/Concentration Index

This is a combined score drawn from these tasks. It gives a sense of how well a child can focus, remember and juggle information at once - all central to learning.

The WIAT-III UK looks at how a child is getting on with the building blocks of school - reading, writing, maths, listening and speaking. It's often used to help identify a learning difficulty and to support decisions like an EHCP or exam access arrangements.

What it measures

Academic skills - what a child can do in school subjects: reading, writing, speaking and listening, and maths. It looks at both strengths and the areas where a child might need extra help.

Why it's used

To see how a child is doing compared with others the same age, to help work out whether there's a specific learning difficulty such as dyslexia or dyscalculia, to plan the right support, and to track progress after an intervention. It can also form part of the evidence for an EHCP application, for Disabled Students' Allowance, or for exam access arrangements.

What the assessment involves

The WIAT-III UK has sixteen subtests, covering:

Oral language - listening and speaking.

Reading - basic reading (sounding out and recognising words), comprehension (understanding what's read), and fluency (how smoothly and quickly a child reads aloud).

Writing - spelling, grammar and sentence structure, and longer written responses.

Mathematics - early number concepts, calculation, problem-solving, and maths fluency (speed and accuracy with simple maths).

How the results are reported

Scores are compared with a large UK sample of children the same age, using standard scores (most children score around 100), percentile ranks (for example, the 25th percentil means a child scored higher than 25 in every 100 children their age), and sometimes other measures such as age equivalents. These help show whether a child is working at, above or below the expected level.

The WISC-V is a cognitive ability test - an IQ test - for children aged 6 to 16. It's most often used by educational psychologists.

Where a specialist teacher's report might use the WRIT for the cognitive-ability section, an Ed Psych report frequently uses the WISC-V instead, which is one reason two reports on the same child can look quite different.

What it measures

It produces an overall Full Scale IQ, but the more useful part is the five separate index scores underneath it, each covering a different kind of thinking:

• Verbal Comprehension - understanding and reasoning with language

• Visual Spatial - seeing how parts fit together into a whole

• Fluid Reasoning - spotting patterns and solving new problems

• Working Memory - holding information in mind and working with it

• Processing Speed - doing simple mental tasks quickly and accurately

Why the profile matters more than the IQ

This is the part worth understanding. A single IQ figure can hide what's going on. A child might have strong verbal comprehension but weak processing speed and working memory - and that uneven profile, where some scores are well above others, is often more telling than the overall number. It's exactly this kind of spiky profile that can point towards dyslexia: an able child whose reading is held back by specific processing difficulties rather than by general ability.

So if your child's report shows a wide spread between the five indexes, that spread is information, not a contradiction. As with all these tests, the detail tells you more than the headline figure.

The DASH-2 looks at why a child might struggle with handwriting - whether it's slow, hard to read, or both. It helps work out what support would help, and it's often used as evidence when applying for extra arrangements in exams, like extra time or permission to type. What it measures How fast a child can write, how legible their handwriting is, and how their writing changes across different tasks - copying versus writing freely, for instance. The point is to understand why handwriting is difficult, rather than just noting that it is.

What your child will be asked to do Five short writing tasks:

• Copy best - write a sentence as neatly as possible

• Alphabet writing - write the alphabet as fast as possible

• Copy fast - write a sentence as quickly as possible

• Free writing - write a story or paragraph from a picture or prompt

• Graphic speed - draw simple patterns like loops, to measure pencil speed Each task shows something different - control, speed, how writing holds up when a child is rushed compared with relaxed.

Who uses it and why

Occupational therapists, specialist teachers and psychologists use the DASH-2 to identify handwriting difficulties, to support a diagnosis like dyspraxia (DCD) or dyslexia, and to provide evidence for exam access arrangements. It can also track whether handwriting is improving after support.

What it can reveal

It can point to difficulties with fine motor control (grip, strength), with seeing and copying accurately, with posture or coordination, or with spacing, pressure and letter formation. It also shows how much a handwriting problem might be affecting schoolwork and confidence. It's used with children who have dyslexia, dyspraxia and a range of other learning or motor difficulties - but it's just as useful for a child with no formal diagnosis who simply finds handwriting hard.

What you'll get afterwards

You can ask for a written report setting out what was done, where your child struggled, the likely causes, and what help is recommended - which might include occupational therapy, classroom strategies, or exam support.

The TOWRE-2 is a quick, reliable test of how well and how fast a child can read - both real words and made-up ones. It's used to spot reading difficulties early, to track progress, and as part of a dyslexia assessment.

What it measures

Two reading skills:

Sight word reading (Sight Word Efficiency) - how many real printed words a child can read correctly in 45 seconds. These are usually everyday words they've seen many times.

Decoding (Phonemic Decoding Efficiency) - how many made-up words a child can sound out correctly in 45 seconds. Because the words aren't real, this part shows how well a child can use phonics rather than relying on words they already recognise.

Why it's used

It catches children who may be struggling with reading at an early stage, it forms part of a fuller assessment for difficulties like dyslexia, and it's useful for checking whether extra support is helping.

Each part has four different versions, so it can be repeated through the year - usually three or four times - to monitor progress.

How long it takes

About five minutes. The child simply reads as many words as they can from a list, as quickly and accurately as possible.

How the results are shown

Scores are compared with other children the same age using standard scores (most children score around 100) and percentile ranks (showing the proportion of children your child did better than). Together these show whether a child is behind, on track or ahead in word reading.

It's used by specialist teachers, educational psychologists, speech and language therapists, schools and colleges, and is commonly used as evidence for EHCP assessments, dyslexia diagnosis and exam access arrangements.

The WJ-IV checks reading, writing and maths skills. It works across a very wide age range - from age 4 through to adults - and is used to identify learning difficulties, show progress and plan support.

What it measures

A range of academic skills across reading, writing and maths, giving a clear picture of where a child is doing well and where they need help. It's also used as evidence when applying for extra help in exams.

The subtests

The WJ-IV is made up of eleven short tests, each taking around five to ten minutes, used together or on their own depending on what's needed:

Reading - Letter-Word Identification, Passage Comprehension, Word Attack, Oral Reading, Sentence Reading Fluency

Writing - Spelling, Writing Samples, Writing Fluency

Maths - Applied Problems, Calculation, Maths Facts Fluency

Who uses it and why

Educational psychologists and specialist teachers use the WJ-IV to identify specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia or dyscalculia, to build targeted learning plans, to provide evidence for exam access arrangements like 25% extra time, and to help with decisions about support and placement.

What it helps identify

It shows which academic skills are strong and which are weaker, and it can help explain why a child is struggling - whether the difficulty is in spelling, comprehension, mental maths or fluency. It's commonly used as part of an EHCP application or a dyslexia diagnosis.

The WRAT is a quick screening test of reading, spelling and maths, used with people from age 5 to 85 and beyond. It gives a first picture of how someone is doing and whether they might need a fuller assessment.

It's often used to screen for learning difficulties, to support decisions about exam access arrangements, and to track academic progress over time.

What it assesses

Four core areas:

Word reading - reading letters and words aloud, showing how well a child recognises and decodes them. No time limit.

Sentence comprehension - filling in the missing word in a sentence, showing how well a child understands language in context. No time limit.

Spelling - writing down dictated letters and words, showing spelling and sound-to-letter knowledge. No time limit.

Maths computation - counting, identifying numbers, and solving problems from basic arithmetic upwards. This one is timed.

The word reading and sentence comprehension scores combine into a Reading Composite, giving a fuller picture of reading than either alone. It's good at flagging difficulties in spelling, basic maths or comprehension even when a child seems to be coping on the surface.

Who uses it

Educational psychologists, SENCos, specialist teachers and speech and language therapists.

The WRIT looks at how a child learns and thinks, across both verbal (language-based) and non-verbal (visual and spatial) skills. It can be used from age 4. It's made up of four short activities, grouped into two areas.

Verbal ability - thinking with words

Verbal analogies - finishing short word puzzles by finding the link between ideas ("car is to road as boat is to...?"). This shows how well a child understands the relationships between words and ideas.

Vocabulary - saying what certain words mean, showing how many words a child knows and how well they can explain them.

These two give a Verbal Ability score.

Visual ability - thinking with pictures

Matrices - choosing the picture that completes a pattern, which checks how a child spots patterns and uses logic.

Diamonds - using small coloured shapes to build designs, which checks visual and spatial thinking.

These two give a Visual Ability score.

Why it's useful

The WRIT gives a snapshot of a child's thinking skills, showing where they find things easier and where they might need more support. It can also highlight big differences between skills - common in children with learning difficulties like dyslexia.

One thing worth knowing: the overall IQ score is often the least useful part. Children with learning differences usually have a mix of strong and weak areas, so it tells you far more to look closely at each section than to read the single combined figure.

The YARC is a detailed one-to-one reading assessment, used with children aged 4 to 16. It helps identify specific reading strengths and difficulties - across decoding, fluency and comprehension - and shows what kind of support would help most.

It's particularly useful when a child is struggling with reading and it isn't clear where the difficulty lies, or when evidence is needed for exam access arrangements or learning support.

What it assesses

The YARC comes in three versions depending on age and reading stage:

Early years reading (ages 4-7) - for beginning readers, this looks at the early building blocks: letter-sound knowledge, recognising simple words, taking a sound away from a word, and picking out the beginning, middle or end sounds. It takes around 20 to 30 minutes and is helpful for spotting early signs of dyslexia or reading delay.

Primary passage reading (ages 5-11) - for developing readers, this looks at both word reading and understanding. The child reads short fiction and non-fiction passages aloud while the adult notes accuracy and reading speed, then asks questions to check comprehension. Around 20 to 30 minutes.

Secondary passage reading (ages 12-16) - for older readers, using more advanced passages to assess accuracy, fluency (smoothness and pacing) and comprehension (understanding, interpreting and reflecting on what's read). Two easier passages are available for students who can't yet access the standard texts. Around 20 to 30 minutes.

What you'll receive

A clear report summarising your child's reading skills - where they're doing well, where they need support, and specific strategies or adjustments that would help - along with standardised scores, percentile ranks and age equivalents.

Why it's useful

It gives a balanced picture of both word reading and comprehension, and pinpoints whether the difficulty is in decoding, fluency or understanding. It tracks progress over time, supports applications for exam access arrangements, and can be used with children who have English as an additional language. It's used by SENCos, specialist teachers, educational psychologists, literacy coordinators and speech and language therapists.

The YARC was developed by reading researchers at the University of York and is widely used across schools and support settings.